Notes on the Phonology of a County Antrim Ulster-Scots Dialect
Part II: Diachronic Study i.e. the Historical Origins of the Dialect*
Historical Phonology
Robert J. Gregg
The Diachronic Aspect
Vowels
No. 1 [ι] Vowels of this type have developed within Glenoe and many Scottish and Ulster-Scots dialects as a contextual shortening of [e:], which itself may represent various vowels in the earlier stages of the language. For example, in the Glenoe words:
[de:] 'do', [he:] 'have', [ne:] 'no', [we:] 'with', [fe:] 'from', the [e:] < OE ō, ɑ, ɑ̄, i, and ON ɑ̄ respectively. The resultant [e:] in these and similar words, irrespective of its diverse origins, has been raised and shortened to [ι] in such fused forms as:
[ˈdιne] 'do not', [ˈhιte] 'have to', [ˈhιne] 'have not', [ˈnιθən] 'nothing',
and in compounded preposition-pronoun forms such as:
[ˈwιme] 'with me', [wιt] 'with it', [ˈfιje] 'from you', [fιt] 'from it'.
Apart from these developments [ι] also represents various ME vowels in weakly stressed syllables:
(i) ME ɑ, as in [ˈα:lmənιk] 'almanac', [ˈəizιk] 'Isaac'.
(ii) ME ɑ, (ultimately < Old French ɑ), as in [ˈbα:gιtś] 'baggage', [ˈgɔ:rbιtś] 'garbage', [ˈkα:bιts] 'cabbage', [ˈpα:rιtś] 'porridge', [gəlˈrɛ:vιtś] 'uproar'; 'noisy gathering'.
(iii) ME ɑ̄, as in [ˈhɛ:dιk] 'headache', [ˈtiθιk] 'toothache', [tιˈkɛ:r] 'take care'.
(iv) ME e (< OE ēɑ), as in [ˈgα:rlιk] 'garlic'.
(v) ME or Early Modern English i, as in [əˈlα:stιk] 'elastic', [ˈfæ̈nιś] 'finish', [ιgˈno:r] 'ignore', [ˈmjü:zιk] 'music', [ˈpɛ:rιś] 'perish', [ˈpɔ:lιś] 'polish'.
(vi) ME ī, as in [lιkˈstŪ:r] 'like flying dust (i.e., very quickly)'.
The vowel [ι] also occurs in a few words of Gaelic origin, in weakly stressed syllables:
[ˈɛ:rιk] 'pullet', [ˈgɛ:lιk] 'earwig', [ˈkα:rιk] 'Carrickfergus',
the first two being probably Scots Gaelic re-imports and the last a local place-name.
No. 2 [ϊ] This vowel often represents ME ō1, in comparison with which it is raised, centred, unrounded and shortened. The corresponding vowel in modern Lallans dialects seems to have shifted all the way to the front position, whereas in Glenoe it is still front-central. Glenoe may thus have preserved an intermediate stage in the fronting process. In the case of Old French u (i.e., ü) > ϊ it could be simply a question of unrounding.
(i) < OE ō1
[blϊd] 'blood', [ˈbrϊðər] 'brother', [dϊn] 'done', [ˌɛ:ftərˈnϊn] 'afternoon', [fϊt] 'foot', [gϊd] 'good', [gϊs] 'goose', [gϊm] 'gum' (the flesh round the teeth), [hϊd] 'hood', [ˈϊðər] 'other', [kϊl] 'cool', [mϊn] 'moon', [rϊd] 'rood (quarter of an acre)', [rϊf] 'roof', [rϊt] 'root', [śϊn] obsolete, now generally [sϊn] 'soon', [sϊt] 'soot', [skϊl] 'school', [spϊn] 'spoon', [stϊl] 'stool', [śϊn] 'shoes', [śϊt] 'shoot'.
(ii) < OE u, which was lowered and lengthened in open syllables to give ME ō1 (10)
[əˈbϊn] 'above' (< OE a + bufan), [pϊt] 'put', (< OE *putian).
(iii) < ON ō
[klϊt] 'hoof (or one of its divisions, in sheep, etc.)', [ˈklϊte] 'the devil', [grϊp] 'open channel in byre'.
(iv) < Old French o, lengthened in ME
[bϊt] 'boot', [fϊl] 'fool'.
(v) < Old French u (probably a central or front central vowel during the ME period)
[dźϊs] 'juice', [dźϊst] 'just (only)'.
No. 3 [æ̈] This vowel — the normal Glenoe equivalent of RP [ι] — is the dialectal representative of ME i (11) in a great number of words such as the following:
(i) < OE i, or ī through shortening
[ˈbæ̈dəbl̹] 'obedient', [ˈbæ̈lˌçʌk] 'billhook',
[blæ̈n] 'blind' (adj. and vb.), [ˈbʌlˌflæ̈nś] 'bullfinch',
[dæ̈xt] 'to wipe', [dræ̈v] 'drove'; 'driven',
[əˈhæ̈nt] 'behind', [fæ̈ft] 'fifth' (< OE ī),
[ˈfæ̈ŋər] 'finger', [hæ̈r] 'her', [ˈireˌwæ̈g] 'earwig',
[jæ̈s] 'yes', [klæ̈m] 'climb', [læ̈θ] 'section — of an orange' (12)
[næ̈xt] 'night', [ræ̈d] 'rode'; 'ridden', [ræ̈n] 'run',
[ræ̈z] 'rose'; 'risen', [ˈsæ̈ńe] 'sinew', [ˈsmæ̈tl̹] 'infectious',
[stæ̈f] 'stiff, disobliging' (< OE ī),
[θæ̈k] 'thick'; 'stupid'; 'unfriendly', [ˈθræ̈sl̹] 'thistle'.
(ii) < OE y, or ȳ through shortening
[bæ̈ld] 'build', [ˈbæ̈re] 'bury', [ˈbæ̈rse] 'bristling (of hair)',
[ˈbæ̈znəz] 'business', [ˈfæ̈lθe] 'filthy' (< OE ȳ),
[fæ̈st] 'fist' (< OE ȳ), [hæ̈l] 'hill', [kæ̈l] 'kiln',
[ˈlæ̈sn̗] 'listen', [næ̈t] 'knit', [sæ̈n] 'sin',
[ˈsæ̈nəre] 'asunder'(13), [ˈtræ̈nl̹] 'to trundle'; 'barrow-wheel',
[ˈθæ̈ml̹] 'thimble' (< OE ȳ), [θæ̈n] 'thin'; [wæ̈ś] 'wish' (< OE ȳ).
(iii) < ON i
[æ̈l] 'ill-' (in compounds such as [ˌæ̈l-ˈtʌŋd]: 'abusive'),
[bæ̈ŋ] 'a heap', [hæ̈t] 'hit', [kæ̈d] 'kid', [kæ̈st] 'chest, box',
[skæ̈n] 'skin', [ˈsmæ̈de] 'smithy', [tæ̈l] 'ajar', [θræ̈ft] 'thrift'.
(iv) < ON> y
[bæ̈g] 'to build', [bræ̈g] 'bridge', [flæ̈t] 'to move (one's belongings to a new house)', [læ̈ft] 'lift'; 'steal'; 'remove a corpse for funeral', [læ̈ŋ] 'type of heather',
[ˈmæ̈dn̗] 'manure heap', [ræ̈ft] 'belch', [ræ̈g] 'ridge', [ˈsæ̈stər] 'sister', [træ̈g] 'neat'.
(v) Old French i
[ˈæ̈gnərənt] 'uncouth', [ˈæ̈mpedənz] 'impudence',
[dəlæ̈vər] 'deliver', [əfæ̈ltər] 'filter', [ˈfæ̈rəl] 'ferrule',
[ˈlæ̈mət] 'limit', [mæ̈kst] 'mixed', [mæ̈tś] 'play truant',
[ˈpæ̈dźən] 'pigeon', [ˈpæ̈lər] 'pillar', [ˈpæ̈nśərz] 'pincers',
[ˈpæ̈śˌməül] 'ant', [pəˈzæ̈śn̗] 'position', [ˈpræ̈zn̗] 'prison',
[ˈræ̈bən] 'ribbon', [ˈræ̈vər] 'river', [ˈræ̈vət] 'rivet',
[ˈsæ̈ŋl̹] 'single', [ˈsæ̈zərz] 'scissors', [ˈtæ̈kət] 'ticket', [ˈtæ̈nsl̹] 'tinsel', [ˈtæ̈śe] 'tissue', [træ̈p] 'trip',
[ˈvæ̈gər] 'vigour', [ˈvæ̈kər] 'vicar', [ˈvæ̈ktre] 'victory',
[ˈvæ̈lən] 'villain', [ˈvæ̈lιdź] 'village', [ˈvæ̈negər] 'vinegar',
[ˈvæ̈śəs] 'vicious', [ˈvæ̈tərəl] 'vitriol', [ˈvæ̈zət] 'visit',
[ˈvæ̈źən] 'vision', [ˈwæ̈kət] 'wicket'.
(vi) < OE (Anglian) e followed by a nasal:
[ˈæ̈ŋlən] 'England', [ˈæ̈ŋιs] 'English', [bæ̈nś] 'bench', [gæ̈rn) 'complain'; 'whine', (< OE grennian - by metathesis),
[hæ̈nź] 'hinge', [ræ̈nś] 'wrench' n., [stræ̈ŋ] 'string'.
(vii) < ME e followed by other consonants:
[ˈæ̈vər] 'ever', [ˈæ̈vre] 'every', [ˈbæ̈zəm] 'besom',
[blæ̈s] 'bless', [ˈdæ̈vl̹] 'devil', [ðəˈgæ̈ðər] 'together',
[ˈjæ̈stə(r)de] 'yesterday', [næ̈kst] 'next', [ræ̈d] 'red',
[ˌśæ̈lˈüt] 'shell out'.
(viii) < ON e, mostly followed by a nasal:
[dæ̈ŋ] 'to beat, hammer', [flæ̈ŋ] 'fling', [hæ̈ŋ] 'hang', [ˈkæ̈tl̹ən] 'kitten', [wæ̈ŋ] 'wing'.
(ix) < Old French e, mostly followed by a nasal:
[ˈæ̈nźən] 'engine', [ˈblæ̈stər] 'blister', [fæ̈tś] 'vetch',
[fræ̈nź] 'fringe', [ˈsæ̈me] 'chemise', [ˈtræ̈ml̹] 'tremble',
[ˈtræ̈ŋkət] 'small channel' (ultimately < Old Northern French trenquer — Old French trencher, French trancher), [ˈtsæ̈mle] 'chimney'.
(x) Glenoe [æ̈] also represents ME u from different sources.
This u could be related to [ae] through the intermediate stages y and i.
[bæ̈l] 'bull' (ultimately < ON buli), [dæ̈n] 'dun, dull brown' (ultimately < Celtic; cp. Welsh dwn, Gaelic donn),
[næ̈t] 'nut' (ultimately < OE hnutu), [ˈsæ̈mər] 'summer' (< OE sumer, sumor),
[tæ̈p] 'tup, ram' (< ME tuppe — of doubtful origin).
(xi) Glenoe [æ̈] occurs in words of doubtful origin or from other sources, including Gaelic,
[ˈbræ̈lemənt] 'uproar', [ˈdźæ̈bl̹] 'spill', [ˈfæ̈sl̹] 'to rustle (paper etc.)',
[glæ̈n] 'Glynn' (local village name, < Gaelic glinn),
[ˈhæ̈rpl̹] 'to limp', [ˈhæ̈rsl̹] 'to cough'; 'to wheeze',
[klæ̈b] 'young horse' (a year and a half old), cp. Gaelic cliobóg,
[læ̈g] 'a fool', [læ̈rks] 'folds in the skin (e.g. of a plump baby)',
[mæ̈m] 'prim', [mæ̈mp] 'behave affectedly', [ˈpæ̈lən] 'pillion' (< Gaelic pilliun; cp. Scots Gaelic pillean),
[ˌsmæ̈ðəˈrinz] 'small fragments' (< Gaelic smiderín),
[snæ̈b] 'window-catch'; 'small door-bolt', [snæ̈k] 'door-latch',
[ˈśæ̈lˌko:rn] 'pimple', [tæ̈g] 'touch lightly'; 'name of a children's game',
[ˈtræ̈tl̹] 'walk with quick, short steps' (diminutive of 'trot'?)
[væ̈t] 'veterinary surgeon' (< Latin veterinarius),
[ˈtræ̈kər] 'trigger' (< Dutch trekker).
No. 4 [ʌ] This vowel represents for the most part ME u from whatever source the latter is derived — OE, ON or Old French. Although the fronting-process or i-Umlaut is by far the more prominent in the history of English as of the other Germanic languages, the opposite process, viz., retraction, must be called on to explain the present occurrence of the vowel [ʌ] in words which had y in OE, and a preliminary rounding as well in those that had OE i. The change from u to [ʌ] involved lowering, centring and unrounding.
(i) < ME u < OE u
[ˈbʌlək] 'bullock', [bʌrn] 'a stream', [ˈbʌtər] 'butter' [ˈdʌme] 'a dumb person', [ˈdʌŋəl] 'dunghill', [dʌrs] 'dare, durst', [ˈdʌrsne] 'dare not, durst not',
[dźʌk] 'a duck', [fʌl] 'full', [fʌn] 'found',
[grʌn] 'ground', [ˈhʌnər] 'hundred', [ˈhʌŋər] 'hunger',
[ˈjʌŋstər] 'child', [ˈkʌbərt| 'cupboard', [kʌrs] 'curse',
[ˈmʌrdər] 'murder', [mʌrn] 'complain', [pʌl] 'pull',
[pʌn] 'pound (money)', [pʌrs] 'purse',
[rʌx] 'rough' (from OE ū by shortening),
[ˈsʌmθən] 'something', [sʌn] 'sun',
[ˈtʌml̹] 'tumble' (< ME tumbel, ultimately < OE tumbian),
[ˈθʌnər] 'thunder', [tʌrf] 'turf', [wʌl] 'wool', [wʌrd] 'word', [wʌrθ] 'worth'.
(ii) < ME u < OE y, especially before r
[blʌś] 'blush', [ˈbʌnl̹] 'bundle', [ˈbʌrdn̗] 'burden',
[fʌrst] 'first', [ˈhʌrdl̹] 'hurdle', [krʌtś] 'crutch',
[stʌr] 'to stir'; 'fun', [ˈstʌrən] 'mischievous', [śʌrt] 'shirt',
[tśʌrn] 'churn', [θʌrst] 'thirst', [wʌrk] 'work',
[wʌrm] 'worm', [ˈwʌre] 'worry'.
(iii) <OE i (or ī through shortening) after w, and also frequently before r.
The vowels y and u could have been intermediate stages.
[bʌrd] 'bird', [mʌtś] 'much', [tśʌrtś] 'church', [twʌnz] 'twins',
[twʌst] 'twist', [θʌrd] 'third', [ˈθʌrte] 'thirty', [wʌl] 'will',
[wʌn] 'the wind'; 'winnow', [ˈwʌnl̹ˌstre:] 'windlestraw',
[ˈwʌnˌrɔ:] 'windrow', [ˈwʌntər] 'winter', [wʌt] 'wit',
[wʌtś] 'witch', [ˈʍʌsl̹] 'whistle', [ˈʍʌspər] 'whisper', [ˈʍʌtl̹] 'to whittle'; 'to pare'; 'whitlow' (< OE ī),
[ˈʍʌtrət] 'stoat' (< OE ī).
Note: the word [ˈtwʌnte] 'twenty' belongs here if we assume that the original e of the stem was first raised to i before the nasal.
(iv) <ON u
[bʌlk] 'bulk', [gʌst] 'gust', [lʌg] 'ear',
[lʌg] 'pull', [ˈlʌgιtś] 'luggage', [mʌk] 'muck', [mʌn] 'must',
[rʌg] 'pull (esp. hair)', [skʌl] 'skull'.
(v) < ON i after w, with perhaps y and u as intermediate stages.
[ˈswʌðər] 'hesitate', [ˈwʌndə] 'window'.
(vi) < Old French or Anglo French u, ou
[ˈbʌlət] 'bullet', [ˈdźʌrne] 'journey', [fʌr] 'fur',
[ˈfʌrnιś] 'furnish', [ˈfʌźənləs] 'tasteless', [ˈgʌtərz] 'mud',
[hʌrt] 'hurt', [ˈkʌntre] 'country'; 'rustic', [ˈkʌrʔn] 'curtain',
[ˈkʌśən] 'cushion', [ˈmʌnʔne] 'mountainous'; 'unkempt',
[ˈmʌʔn] 'mutton', [ˈnʌmər] 'number', [nʌrs] 'nurse',
[ˈpʌlət] 'pullet', [ˈpʌrpəs] 'purpose', [pʌś] 'push',
[ˈrʌfən] 'ruffian', [ˈsʌdn̗tle] 'suddenly', [ˈśʌgər] 'sugar',
[ˈtʌrət] 'turret'.
No. 5 [ə] represents all the ME short vowels and diphthongs in weakly stressed positions, in initial, medial or final syllables.
< ME a
[əˈbüt] 'about', [ˈdzɛ:rməne] 'Germany', [ˈspɛ:śəl] 'special'.
< ME e
[əˈnkwəiər] 'enquire', [ˈmɔ:dərət] 'moderate', [ˈkrʌkət] 'crooked'.
< ME i
[əˈmɛ:ns] 'immense', [ˈtræ̈nəte] 'trinity', [ˈkʌmən] 'coming'.
< ME o
[kəˈmæ̈t] 'commit', [ˌdæ̈səˈbidźn̗t] 'disobedient', [ˈbʌlək] 'bullock'.
< ME u, ou
[ˌənˈhɑ:pe] 'unhappy', [ˈvæ̈śəsle] 'viciously', [ˈmüθfə] 'mouthful'.
< ME ai, ei
[ˈtrɛ:vəl] 'travel'; 'walk', [ˈbɑ:rgən] 'bargain'.
No. 6 [ë:] This vowel, the pre-r allophone of [ϊ], represents, like the latter, ME ō1. In comparison with the ME vowel it is centred and unrounded — like [ϊ] — but it differs from [ϊ] in that it is not raised or shortened. It has probably about the same tongue height as ō. It should be noted that both [ϊ] and [ë:] occur internally in words or in final closed syllables. In words with ME ō1 in final open syllables, Glenoe has [e:], which in relation to the ME starting point is completely fronted and unrounded (see No. 12, ix)
[bë:rd] 'board' (< OE bōrd), [flë:r] 'floor' (< OE flōr),
[pë:r] 'poor' (< ME pōre, < Old French povre).
No. 7 [ü:] Although it represents various ME starting points, this vowel occurs chiefly in words which had ME ū, in comparison with which [ü:] is extremely centred, i.e. articulated in a front-central position. The tongue height, lip-rounding and quantity are about the same for both vowels.
(i) < ME ū < OE ū
[brü:] 'brow', [ˌbʌrnˈbrü:] 'river-bank', [hü:] 'how',
[kü:] 'cow', [nü:] 'now', [sü:] 'sow', [ˈsü:ər] 'sour',
[ˈśü:ər] 'shower', [ˈθü:zn̗] 'thousand'.
(ii) < ME -ul with loss of l and lengthening
[fü:] 'full', [pü:] 'pull'
(iii) < OE ō followed by velar spirant
[bü:] 'bow (of a boat)', [pjü:] 'plough' (influenced by ON plōg).
(iv) < ME eu, ew
[bjü:] 'blue', [lü:] 'lukewarm', [ńü:] 'new',
[śü:] 'sew', [vjü:] 'view'.
(v) [ü:] in Glenoe words from various sources
[dü:] 'dove' (OE *dufe), [dźəˈrü:z] (for [dźəˈlü:z] 'surmise', (< French jalouser), [ˈkrü:ze] 'rush-lamp' (cp. Gaelic crúiscean; ON krūs 'a pot')
No. 8 [ɛ:] This vowel is of very frequent occurrence and generally represents ME e, the latter being of divers origins, but [ɛ:] also occurs in words where ME had a. The lengthening in [ɛ:] is thus modern.
(i) < ME e < OE e, eo
[ˈbɛ:dərəl] 'bedridden person', [ˈbɛ:lez] 'bellows', [bɛ:n] 'bend', [ˈbɛ:re] 'berry', [ˈɛ:ftər] 'after' (influenced by ON),
[ɛ:n] 'end', [ɛ:rn] 'errand',
[ˈhɛ:rvəst] 'harvest', [jɛ:rd] 'yard', [ˈlɛ:mpət] 'limpet',
[lɛ:rn] 'learn'; 'teach', [məˈsɛ:l] 'myself', [nɛ:b] 'beak',
[sɛ:n] 'send', [stɛ:rv] 'starve'; 'suffer from extreme cold',
[θrɛ:ś] 'thresh, thrash'.
(ii) < ME a
[brɛ:s] 'brass', [ɛ:ks] 'axe', [ˈɛ:pl̹] 'apple', [ɛ:rm] 'arm',
[ˈfɛ:ðer] 'father', [ˈgɛ:ðer] 'gather', [glɛ:d] 'glad',
[grɛ:s] 'grass', [ˈhɛ:ltər] 'halter', [hɛ:rm] 'harm',
[hɛ:sp] 'hasp', [kɛ:rt] 'cart', [ˈkrɛ:dl̹] 'cradle',
[ˈnɛ:re] 'narrow', [ˈplɛ:stər] 'plaster', [ˈrɛ:ðer] 'rather',
[sɛ:k] 'sack', [ˈsɛ:tə(r)de] 'Saturday', [śɛ:rp] 'sharp',
[tɛ:rt] 'tart'.
(iii) < ON e
[ɛ:g] 'egg'; 'to incite', [gɛ:ld] 'geld', [klɛ:g] 'gadfly',
[lɛ:g] 'leg', [ˈskɛ:le] 'squint'; 'glance'.
(iv) < ON a
[ˈbrɛ:kn̹] 'bracken', [drɛ:g] 'drag', [flɛ:gz] 'flagstones',
[flɛ:t] 'flat', [nɛ:g] 'scold', [ˈskrɛ:ge] 'thin', [snɛ:g] 'difficulty'.
(v) < ON y
[ˈkɛ:nl̹] 'kindle', [rɛ:d] 'rid'.
(vi) < Old French e
[dɛ:t] 'debt', [dəˈzɛ:rv] 'deserve', [ˈdzɛ:ləs] 'jealous',
[ˈdźɛ:rmən] 'German', [ˈfɛ:rmər] 'farmer', [ˈgɛ:nse] 'jersey',
[kənˈsɛ:rn] 'concern', [ˈlɛ:təs] 'lettuce', [mɛ:n] 'mend',
[ˈnɛ:fje] 'nephew', [ˈpɛ:rιś] 'perish'; 'to be extremely cold',
[ˈsɛ:rtn̗(t)] 'certain', [tɛ:mp] 'tempt', [ˈtɛ:reər] 'terrier',
[ˈvɛ:re] 'very'.
(vii) < Old French i
[ˈdɛ:nər] 'dinner'.
No. 9 [ɑ:] This, another characteristic vowel in the Glenoe dialect, is the normal representative of ME ɑ, so the present lengthened form is modern. The tongue position may be slightly retracted as compared with the ME vowel.
(i) < ME ɑ < OE ɑe, eɑ, ɑ
[ɑ:nt] 'ant', [ɑ:rk] 'meal-bin', [bɑ:k] 'back', [beˈlɑ:ŋ] 'belong',
[ˈfɑ:sn̗] 'fasten', [ˈgɑ:ləsəz] 'braces', [hɑ:n] 'hand', [ˈhɑ:rə] 'harrow', [kɑ:f| 'chaff', [kɑ:v] 'calve',
[ˈkɑ:nl̹] 'candle', [mɑ:n] 'man', [pɑ:d] 'path', [sɑ:t] 'salt',
[swɑ:rd] 'swath' (confused with sward?),
[wɑ:z] 'was', [ʍɑ:ŋ] 'thong'.
(ii) < ME e often after w or before r
[bɑ:rm] 'yeast', [ˈdɑ:rlən] 'darling', [ˈfɑ:rdər] 'further',
[ˈfɑ:rdn̗] 'farthing', [rɑ:n] 'wren', [ˈrɑ:sl̹] 'wrestle',
[sɑ:rk] 'chemise', [twɑ:lθ] 'twelfth', [ˈwɑ:ðer] 'weather',
[ʍɑ:lp] 'whelp'.
(iii) < ME o < OE o, before labials
[ɑ:f] 'off', [ˈɑ:pn̗] 'open',
[ˈɑ:tərˌkɑ:p] term of abuse (< OE attorcoppa 'a spider'),
[drɑ:p] 'drop', [krɑ:p] 'crop', [stɑ:p] 'stop',
[tɑ:p] 'top'
(iv) < ON a, (e, o)
[ɑ:r] 'scar' (<e), [ˈblɑ:ðəre] 'riff-raff', [ˈhɑ:nsl̹] 'inaugural gift',
[lɑ:ft] 'loft'; 'upstairs room(s)' (< o), [rɑ:ŋ] 'wrong',
[skɑ:r] 'scare' (< e), [stɑ:k] 'stack'.
(v) < Old French a
[ˈɑ:rge] 'argue', [ˈbɑ:gιtś] 'baggage', [bɑ:rl] 'barrel',
[ˈblɑ:ŋkət] 'blanket', [dźɑ:kət] 'jacket', [grɑ:n] 'grand',
[ˈkɑ:re] 'carry', [kˈwɑ:ləte] 'quality'; 'aristocracy',
[kwɑ:rt] 'quart', [ˈmɑ:tər] 'matter', [skɑ:d] 'scald'; 'tea',
[vɑ:lˈe] 'value'.
(vi) < Old French e
[klɑ:rk] 'clerk', [ˈpɑ:rdn̗] 'pardon', [ˈpɑ:rsle] 'parsley',
[ˈpɑ:rsn̗] 'parson', [wɑ:r] 'war'.
(vii) < Old French o
[ˈbɑ:tl̹] 'bottle (of hay)', [ˈpɑ:rιtś] 'porridge'.
(viii) [ɑ:] in words of doubtful origin in Glenoe.
[brɑ:tl̹] 'peal (of thunder)', [drɑ:b] 'dew', [dźɑ:p] 'splash',
[flɑ:m] 'to flatter', [ˈgɑ:mərəl] 'fool' (probably ultimately < ME grammere),
[hɑ:b] 'hob', [kɑ:ŋl̹] 'wrangle', [klɑ:rt] 'slut', [ˈlɑ:śər] 'eyelash',
[nɑ:b] 'knob', [skɑ:rt] 'cormorant' (cp. ON scarf 'cormorant')
[ˈsprɑ:xl̹] 'sprawl', [ˈθrɑ:pl̹] 'throat'.
No. 10 [ɔ:] This vowel is of common occurrence in all the Ulster-Scots dialects but is not found in central or South Ulster speech, which usually has [ɒ] in its place. It generally stands for ME o, so the lengthening is modern. The vowel seems to represent an intermediate stage in the development of the typically western Lallans [o:] from the same source. Glenoe shows this final stage in only a few words: [ˈbo:ne] 'bonny', [dźo:n] 'John', [ˈko:le] 'collie (dog)'.
(i) < ME o < OE o, or ō shortened
[ˈbɔ:rə] 'to borrow', [ˈdɔ:kən] 'dock (plant)',
[ðəˈmɔ:rə] 'tomorrow', [ˈðɔ:nər] 'yonder', [ˈfɔ:ðer] 'fodder' (< OE ō1, shortened), [ˈfɔ:rət] 'forward',
[ˈklɔ:kən] 'broody (of a hen)',
[lɔ:k] 'a lot', [ˈɔ:kstər] 'armpit' (< OE ō1, shortened).
(ii) < ME ɑ followed by l, which has been lost
[bɔ:] 'ball', [fɔ:] 'fall', [məˈskɔ:] 'to slander', [ɔ:] 'all',
[wɔ:] 'wall', [wɔ:k] 'walk'.
(iii) < ME ɑu, ɑw
[blɔ:] 'to blow', [krɔ:] 'crow', [mɔ:] 'mow', [rɔ:] 'a row',
[snɔ:] 'snow', [sɔ:] 'to sow', [tɔ:z] 'taws', [ˈθrɔ:ən] 'obstinate'.
(iv) < ME ou < o followed by a velar fricative
[bɔ:xt] 'bought', [brɔ:xt] 'brought', [ˈdɔ:xtər] 'daughter'.
(v) < ON o
[ˈslɔ:kən] 'to quench (thirst)'.
(vi) < Old French o
[ˈbɔ:tl̹] 'bottle', [fɔ:rm] 'form', [ˈkɔ:tιdź] 'cottage',
[ˈɔ:rιnź] 'orange', [rɔ:k] 'rock'.
(vii) < Old French au
[beˈkɔ:z] 'because', [frɔ:d] 'fraud', [pɔ:] 'paw'.
(viii) Glenoe [ɔ:] in words of doubtful origin
[ˈbɔ:s] 'hassock', [bəˈlˊɔ:r] 'bellow', [fɔ:g] 'eat greedily',
[gɔ:rb] 'a glutton', [klɔ:k] 'a cockroach',
[kɔ:g] 'to copy (homework etc.)',
[prɔ:g] 'to search (for food etc.)',
[ˈprɔ:dl̹] 'to poke about', [ˈrɔ:zn̗] 'resin'.
No. 11 [i/i:] Both the long and the short version of this vowel are related to either ME ē1, or ē2. Hence the short allophone in Glenoe represents a modern shortening.
(i) < ME ē1 (i.e., ē) < OE (various sources)
[ˈbislənz] 'first milk of cow after calving',
[bli:z] 'blaze', [brist] 'breast', [di:] 'die',
[di:l] 'devil', [drip] 'drip', [fil] 'field', [fli:] 'fly',
[frin] 'friend', [hi:rd] 'heard', [hix] 'high', [i:] 'eye',
[in] 'eyes', [ˈi:vnən] 'evening', [kiŋ] 'king',
[li:] 'a lie'; 'to lie', [lif] (obs.) 'gladly', [ˈmidə] 'meadow',
[rik] 'smoke', [sik] 'sick', [spil] 'climb', [strit] 'street',
[swim] 'swim', [tri:] 'tree', [θri:] 'three', [θrid] 'thread',
[wi:] 'wee', [ˈwidə] 'widow', [wit] 'to wet'.
(ii) < ME ē1 < ON (various sources)
[gi:] 'give', [drix] 'wet and depressing (weather)'
[kik] 'peep', [ˈlistər] 'pronged salmon spear'.
(iii) < ME ē2 (i.e., ē̜) < OE (various sources)
[brid] 'bread', [did] 'dead', [dif] 'deaf',
[di:v] 'deafen', [hid] 'head', [klin] 'clean', [lid] 'to lead',
[lid] 'lead (metal)', [mi:r] 'mare', [pi:r] 'pear',
[sprid] 'spread', [swi:r] 'swear', [ti:r] 'to tear',
[wil] 'well' (adv.), [wi:r] 'to wear'.
(iv) < ME ē2 < ON (various sources)
[gi:r] 'equipment', [ni:v] 'fist', [tim] 'to pour'.
(v) < ME ē2 < Old French (various sources)
[bis:] 'beasts', [əˈpi:r] 'appear', [i:z] 'ease', [kli:r] 'clear',
[kriś] 'grease'.
(vi) Glenoe [i/i:] in words of doubtful origin, sometimes Gaelic
[ˈfrite] 'superstitious' (< ON frētt?)
[ˈgriśəx] 'glowing embers of a fire'(14)
[kəˈli:red] 'hysterically hilarious',
[ˈpi:regəld] 'in an uncomfortably conspicuous position',
[ˈpi:re] 'peg-top', [ˈpi:zwip] 'peewit',
[ˈsti:re] 'an unappetising mixture of food' (< OE styrian 'to stir' — with unrounded, lowered and lengthened stem vowel subsequently raised again?)(15)
No. 12 [e/e:] The long allophone generally represents ME ɑ̄, occasionally ME ē2 and ō2 and the ME diphthongs ai and ei. The short allophone occurs only in weakly stressed syllables and stands for ME i, e, ɑ, etc.
The Long Allophone: [e:]
(i) < ME ɑ̄ < OE ɑ̄
[be:n] 'bone', [ble:t] 'bashful', [bre:d] 'broad',
[əˈle:n] 'alone', [gre:p] 'dung-fork', [he:l] 'whole',
[he:m] 'home', [kle:θ] 'cloth', [me:st] 'most',
[ne:n] 'none', [re:p] 'rope', [se:] 'so', [se:p] 'soap',
[ste:n] 'stone', [te:] 'toe'.
(ii) < ME ɑ̄ < ON ɑ̄
[be:θ] 'both', [ble:] 'purplish blue', [ˈble:bəre] 'bilberry',
[bre:] 'hill-slope'; 'steep road', [əˈge:n] 'again(st)'
[fe:] 'from', [ke:l] 'cabbage', [le:n] 'loan',
[le:x] 'low', [stre:] 'straw'.
(iii) < ME ɑ̄ < OE a by lengthening
[be:k] 'bake', [ge:t] 'gate', [he:] 'have', [ke:m] 'comb',
[ˈle:mətər] 'lame person'.
(iv) < ME ɑ̄ < ON a by lengthening
[ˈge:vl̹] 'gable', [ke:k] 'cake', [se:m] 'same',
[te:n] 'taken', [we:l] 'choose'.
(v) < ME ɑ̄ < Old French a by lengthening
[ˈbe:kən] 'bacon', [ˈe:bl̹] 'able', [fe:s] 'face',
[ˈpe:pər] 'paper', [ˈste:bl̹] 'stable'.
(vi) < ME ē2 < OE (various sources)
[be:t] 'beat', [ˈde:lər] 'dealer', [de:θ] 'death',
[ˈe:stər] 'Easter', [əˈle:vn̗] 'eleven', [fle:] 'flea',
[gre:t] 'great', [ˈse:vn̗] 'seven', [śe:d] 'shed',
[śe:f] 'sheaf', [tśe:p] 'cheap'.
(vii) < ME ē2 < ON (various sources)
[se:t] 'seat', [skre:x] 'screech'.
(viii) < ME ē2 < Old French (various sources)
[be:k] 'beak'; 'mouth', [be:st] 'beast', [kwe:t] 'quiet',
[ˈre:əl] 'real', [ˈre:zn̗] 'reason', [ˈse:zn̗] 'season',
[tre:t] 'treat', [tśe:t] 'cheat'.
(ix) < ME ō1 in final open syllables
[de:] 'do', [te:] 'to'.
(x) < ME ai, ei < OE (various sources)
[de:] 'day', [ˈe:lən] 'ailing', [ne:l] 'nail',
[re:n] 'rain', [se:d] 'said', [se:l] 'sail'; 'a ride',
[sne:l] 'snail'.
(xi) < ME ai, ei, < ON (various sources)
[be:t] 'bait', [ðe:] 'they', [ðe:r] 'their', [he:n] 'to use sparingly', [re:k] 'wander', [ste:k] 'steak', [we:k] 'weak'.
(xii) < ME ai, ei < Old French (various sources)
[fe:θ] 'faith', [ge:n] 'gain', [ιkˈsple:n] 'explain',
[pe:nt] 'paint', [pre:z] 'praise', [re:l] 'rail',
[ˈstre:n] 'strain', [ˈstre:nźər] 'stranger', [ˈte:lər] 'tailor',
[tre:n] 'train', [we:t] 'wait'.
(xiii) [e:] in Glenoe words of doubtful origin
[ˈdre:ke] 'wet'; 'misty (weather)', [kre:k] 'ask persistently',
[ˈpe:kən] 'a beating', [re:θ] 'ghostly apparition',
[ske:l] 'scatter (dung)', [ˈsle:tər] 'wood-louse',
[spe:lz] 'small fragments', [ste:v] 'strain',
[ˈθe:vləs] 'lackadaisical'.
The Short Allophone: [e]
(i) In initial weakly-stressed syllables, < ME e, i
[beˈgæ̈n] 'begin', [beˈla:ŋ] 'belong', [deˈklɛ:r] 'declare',
[deˈsəid] 'decide', [reˈfjü:z] 'to refuse', [reˈwɑ:rd] 'reward'.
(ii) In medial weakly-stressed syllables, < ME ɑ, e, i, u
[ˈæ̈mpedənt] 'impudent', [ˈdɛ:lɛkət] 'delicate',
[ˈmɛ:desn̗] 'medicine', [ˈmɛ:gnefae] 'magnify',
[ˌɔ:nbeˈno:nst (te:)] 'without the knowledge (of)'.
[ˈtɛ:stemənt] 'testament'.
(iii) In final weakly-stressed syllables, < ME ai, i
[ˈæ̈vre] 'every', [ˈbʌde] 'person', [ˈfrəide] 'Friday',
[ˈhe:mle] 'hospitable', [ˈɔ:fes] 'office', [ˈsɔ:led] 'solid'.
No. 13 [o/o:] The main source to which these vowels can be related is ME ō2 (i.e., o̜), but there is a small group of words — intruders from the standard language via Larne — with [o/o:] < ME ɑ̄. The long form is the normal one; the short form, which is rare, occurs only — though not exclusively — in front of [k].
The shorthening seems to be recent.
(i) < ME ō2 < OE o by lengthening
[əˈfo:r| 'before', [fok] 'folk', [fo:l] 'foal', [go:ld] 'gold', [ho:p] 'hope', [jo:k] 'yolk', [ko:l] 'coal', [ˈlonən] 'lane', [lo:s] 'lose', [lo:st] 'lost', [no:z] 'nose', [smok] 'smoke', [sno:r] 'snore', [so:k] 'soak', [θo:l] 'endure', [θro:t] 'throat'.
(ii) < ME ɑ̄ < OE ɑ̄
[bo:t] 'boat', [go:] 'go', [go:t] 'goat', [ho:n] 'hone',
[lo:f] 'loaf', [o:k] 'oak', [ro:d] 'road', [spok] 'a spoke', [stro:k] 'stroke'.
(iii) < ME ō2 <Old French o by lengthening
[bro:tś] 'brooch', [klo:s] 'close', [ko:r] 'core',
[ko:t] 'coat', [ˈno:śn̗] 'notion', [no:t] 'note',
[pok] 'poke', [ˈpokət] 'pocket', [ˈpo:tśər] 'poacher',
[ro:b] 'robe', [ro:st] 'roast', [səˈpo:z] 'suppose',
[ˈso:dźər] 'soldier', [ˈsto:re] 'story', [to:st] 'toast'.
(iv) Glenoe [o:] in words of doubtful origin, sometimes Gaelic
[bo:s] 'hollow', [ˈfo:ze] 'spongy', [gəˈĺo:r] 'plenty'(16)
[ho:g] 'stench',(17) [ˈko:gl̹e] 'unsteady',
[ko:l] 'small bundle of hay', [lo:k] 'luke-warm',
[pro:k] 'poke', [ro:n] 'gutter-pipe', [sno:k] 'snuffle',
[ˈso:rnəx] 'to rummage', [ˈsto:vən] 'very drunk'
[stro:n] 'small quantity (e.g. of tea) poured out',
[ˈto:te] 'tiny', [to:v] 'brag'.
No. 14 [ü/ü:] This vowel, like No. 7, generally represents ME ū. The shortening in the first allophone is therefore modern, while the length in the second may have been maintained from ME or — perhaps more likely — may represent a recent re-lengthening in front of [r]. The ME vowels ü (< Old French or Anglo-Norman) and ō1 as well as the diphthongs eu and iu are further possible sources of Glenoe [ü/ü:].
(i) ME ū < OE ū, or u by lengthening
[brün] 'brown', [drüθ] 'drought'; 'thirst', [dük] 'to duck or submerge in water'; 'a bath', [dźük] 'to duck down'; 'dodge out of sight', [dün] 'down', [ə'büt] 'about',
[hüs] 'house', [ˈkütər] 'coulter', [lüd] 'loud',
[müs] 'mouse', [müθ] 'mouth', [rüm] 'room', [ˈrüste] 'rusty',
[trüt] 'trout', [tün] 'town', [θüm] 'thumb', [ü:r] 'our', [üt] 'out'.
(ii) ME ū < ON ū or u lengthened
(iii) ME ū < Old French u and ou, long or lengthened
[ˈdæ̈sˌkürs] 'discourse', [düt] 'doubt', [əˈkünt] 'account',
[ˈkünsl̹] 'council', [künt] 'count', [kürs] 'course',
[kürt] 'court', [krün] 'crown', [ˈpüðər] 'powder',
[rün] 'round', [sün] 'sound', [süp] 'soup'.
(iv) < ME ō1 < OE ō
[bük] 'book', [füd] 'food', [kük] 'cook', [tül] 'tool'.
(v) < ME ō1 < ON ō
[blüm] 'bloom', [lüf] 'palm of hand'.
(vi) < ME ō1 < Old French ō
[prüf] 'proof'.(20)
(vii) < ME iu, eu, ü (< Old French), all of which fall together as iu at an early stage. In this diphthong the first element becomes [j], which may remain, merge with the preceding consonant modifying it in some way, or simply disappear.
< OE
[trüθ] 'truth'
< Old French
[brüt] 'brute', [dźük] 'duke', [ˈdźü:rən] 'during',
[ˈfjünərəl] 'funeral', [ˈkjü:reəs] 'curious', [kjü:r] 'cure',
[pjü:r] 'pure', [rül] 'rule', [ˈstśüpət] 'stupid',
[śü:r] 'sure', [tśüb] 'tube'.
Introduction | Diachronic Aspect | Diphthongs | Consonants | Notes